Ancient Greek History and Mythology — Reading Group Summary
【Ancient Greek Crete and Minoan Civilizations】
1. Crete and Mycenae
The Crete civilization and the Mycenaean civilization are not indigenous Greek civilizations. The Mycenaean civilization is somewhat connected to the mainland because the Dorians and the Mycenaeans belong to the same branch. Therefore, stories from the late Mycenaean period are also mentioned in Greek mythology. For example, the Trojan War occurred in the late Mycenaean era. However, there is little mention of the Crete civilization, although some myths and stories have been passed down about Crete. What are they? The labyrinth, the island of Crete, the Minotaur’s labyrinth in the Kingdom of Minos, and the Minotaur itself. These stories romanticize, mythologize, and narrate the ancient slavery practices—how people were offered as sacrifices.
At that time, Crete was in a flourishing period, and the civilization on the Greek peninsula annually paid 50 pairs of golden boys and girls to be sent into the labyrinth to be eaten by the Minotaur. This was essentially a form of slavery, a hegemonic practice by a slave-owning empire. Damn Crete, damn Noxus, conducting crazy military invasions and expansions, promoting maritime hegemony, advocating for sea power, and controlling the major land powers of Greece. The Western power Mycenae and the eastern small island tribes even invaded the Western powers, plundering their golden boys and girls. This reflects the relationships between slave states at the time. It is likely that the practice of capturing golden boys and girls to offer to the Minotaur was not literal but a brutal, sacrificial system of the slave era—oppression by a powerful slave-owning state over weaker ones.
It is clear that Greek mythology stories are told from the perspective of the Mycenaeans and Dorians. Since Mycenae and Dorian are of the same branch, and Homer’s epics recount the hero era, which is the precursor to Mycenaean civilization. They write from the perspective of the Mycenaeans and Dorians, depicting Crete civilization as barbaric and Asia Minor civilizations as savage.
【Let’s look at the map, or else we won’t know where Crete is after talking for so long.】
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2. The Story of the Minotaur
【The earliest slave-owning state in ancient Greece was on the island of Crete, which we just saw as a long, narrow island—Crete. Around 2500 BC, Crete developed from the Neolithic into a combined stone and bronze age, with primitive communal societies gradually dissolving and transitioning into slave societies. By 2000 BC, the earliest slave-owning states appeared on Crete. Initially, these were independent small kingdoms, which later unified, with the entire island under the rule of the kingdom centered at Knossos. The 17th and 16th centuries BC marked the height of this civilization. The main relic is the famous Palace of Knossos. The palace was large and complex, with many rooms and passages, later mythologized as the labyrinth in Greek stories, known as the Minotaur’s labyrinth.】
There are related stories, claiming that inside the labyrinth there was a Minotaur—a bull-headed man—who annually ate 50 pairs of boys and girls sent from oppressed smaller states under the rule of Knossos. To save these children, a hero, “passive lover” Theseus, was sent to solve the labyrinth. Theseus was not capable and had to rely on others; he couldn’t defeat the Minotaur and nearly got eaten. So he seduced the daughter of King Minos, Princess Ariadne, who helped him by giving him a magic sword and a golden thread (mistakenly called the golden fleece in ancient times). She knew the labyrinth well and used the thread to guide him out after killing the Minotaur.
Ariadne and Theseus fell in love. However, on the way back from the island, Theseus dreamed that the goddess of fate told him their love would have no good ending. He was terrified and abandoned Ariadne on a deserted island. Ariadne, furious, cursed Theseus. On the return voyage, Theseus’s ship did not hoist a white sail as agreed with his father; he failed to do so, and his father, believing he was dead, jumped into the sea and committed suicide.
Greek mythology is very realistic, vividly showing the patriarchal society’s reactionary male-dominated culture: “Eat soft rice and abandon women,” very authentic and reactionary.
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3. The Rise of Mycenaean Civilization and the Trojan War
The Mycenaean civilization developed later than Crete’s, initially with a lower level of socio-economic development. Therefore, Crete first subdued Mycenae and prospered on the island, dominating Mycenae. The “Sax Kingdom” on Crete is described as a savage military conquest of other kingdoms. The creators of Crete’s culture and later Greeks are not of the same ethnicity. The ancestors of the Greeks still lived in northeastern Europe and had not yet entered mainland Greece. The ancient peoples of Crete created their culture under the influence of advanced civilizations from Egypt and Western Asia.
Around the 16th century BC, Crete’s influence extended to some Aegean islands and parts of central and southern Greece, such as Athens, which collected tributes from these regions and spread Crete’s culture to mainland Greece—leading to Mycenaean culture. When Crete’s influence reached mainland Greece, these regions transitioned from primitive societies to slave societies, forming slave-owning states. The civilization of mainland Greece was influenced and civilized by Crete.
However, these peoples were ungrateful and rose up to overthrow Crete’s culture. Wherever there was oppression, there was resistance. In southern Greece, a major cultural center was Mycenae. Since the late 19th century, excavations of Mycenae have been thorough, and ancient texts have been deciphered. Research shows that the Mycenaeans and later Greeks belonged to the same ethnicity, speaking an early form of Greek—Ionian-Acadian dialect. They migrated into Greece from the north.
Before the arrival of the Mycenaeans, the region already had small states influenced by Crete. After the Mycenaeans arrived, they destroyed these small states and established their own slave-owning states, gradually developing into a powerful force capable of rivaling Crete. The Mycenaeans later invaded and destroyed Crete.
Archaeological evidence shows that the rulers of Mycenae can be divided into two successive dynasties: the “Well Shaft Tomb” and the “Beehive Tomb” dynasties. The Beehive Tomb dynasty appeared around 1500 BC, marking the peak of Mycenaean power. The influence of Crete was significant, especially in crafts and commerce, leading to competition and eventual victory. Small islands could not match the might of Mycenae.
In the late Mycenaean period, the eastern Aegean coast and the city of Troy on the Anatolian Peninsula became increasingly wealthy, attracting Greek attention led by Mycenae. The rising eastern power was Troy, located in the Ionian region of the east. The Mycenaeans formed a democratic coalition to attack Troy.
In the early 12th century BC, Mycenae and nearby states formed an alliance and launched a naval expedition against Troy, known as the Trojan War in Greek legend. According to legend, Troy was finally captured using the Trojan Horse—a wooden horse used as a ruse, which has become a term in computer science to describe malware disguised as legitimate files that internally sabotage systems.
Archaeological excavations at the site of ancient Troy confirm the city was indeed destroyed. The Mycenaeans suffered heavy losses during the expedition. This was the inevitable downfall of two great empires. The war sparked revolutions; revolutions ended wars. The Mycenaeans organized a coalition to attack the eastern powers, which were destroyed. Both forces perished, wiped out by the Dorians.
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4. Why the Heroic Age is Called the Heroic Age
After the Mycenaeans and Troy fought the Trojan War, both sides were severely damaged. Soon after, a group of Greek tribes called the Dorians invaded from the north, destroying Mycenae and other slave-owning states. The main reason was that Mycenaean civilization had entered its late stage of slavery. The more prosperous the slave society, the deeper the oppression of slaves, with more labor slaves used and more exploitation. This created sharp class conflicts. To divert and shift crises, they fabricated a world war—attacking Troy—to transfer their internal contradictions. The war resulted in mutual destruction, not alleviating internal class conflicts but intensifying them, leading to the gradual disintegration of Mycenaean civilization.
At this time, the Dorians, still in the late primitive society stage, had not fully entered a class society. They maintained unity, and their invasion defeated the already slave-owning Mycenaeans. Ancient Greek history entered a new period—the Homeric Age. From the 11th to the 9th century BC, this period is called the Homeric Age because of Homer’s epics. It is also called the Heroic Age because many heroes appeared during this time.
Why so many heroes? Because it was the late primitive society era, a military democratic period. The characteristic of military democracy was that tribes had not yet disintegrated, and there was no highly developed culture or writing. Despite the lack of writing, military noble families emerged, and history was no longer about laboring people but about military noble families and heroic figures.
Thus, the history of the military democratic period is often mythologized. Similarly, in China, stories of the Yan and Huang tribes, Emperor Yan, and riding bulls and pandas are from this period. Heroes were actually military noble families—dictators who usurped the democratic rights of the people in primitive society. The emperor in Chinese history was the first dictator.
Because there was no transition into a slave state, no slave society, no large-scale social division, and no developed culture or written history, historical events of this period could only be passed down orally, often with mystical embellishments. Coupled with the limited understanding of nature at the time, historical records focused on military noble leaders’ deeds and mythologized them into stories.
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5. The Origin of Homeric Epics and the Patriarchal Color Reflected in Myths
The Homeric Age, also called the Heroic Age, was a period of military democracy after the Dorians’ invasion, retreating from slavery back to primitive society. Through “Deciphering World History,” one can briefly understand the origins of Greek civilization, including Crete and Mycenae, focusing on the Homeric Age, the Greek history of the Heroic Age. The Homeric epics record the history of this era, marking the beginning of Greek mythology. All stories in Greek mythology describe the start of the Heroic Age. There are no earlier historical periods in the myths.
【The Homeric Epics include the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey,” attributed to the blind poet Homer. Homer is a legendary figure; his birth and death dates and birthplace are uncertain. Whether he authored these epics is a long-standing debate in literary history.】
No one knows if he actually existed; it is certain that these are folk stories passed down by common people, similar to Chinese ancient myths, created by the populace.
【It is generally believed that the epics were originally oral folk songs, gradually shaped and compiled by generations of bards, forming narrative poems centered on key events; by around the 8th century BC, they took their definitive form, becoming unique epics. The legendary Homer is probably the final shaping poet of these epics. By the 6th century BC, both epics were finalized. They narrate the story of the Greek Mycenaeans’ expedition to Troy. The “Iliad” recounts the most important battle during the expedition: the Greek hero Achilles (also called Achilleus or Akhilleus), who, after his commander Agamemnon stole his slave girl, withdrew from battle in anger; later, he rejoined and killed Hector, Troy’s main commander. The “Odyssey” tells of the clever and cunning hero Odysseus, who, after victory, faced many hardships returning home across the sea. The epics draw on texts from the Mycenaean era but reflect history from the 15th-16th centuries BC. After a long formation process, they are crucial for understanding Greek socio-economic history from the 11th to 9th centuries BC.】
According to Greek mythology and the “Iliad,” the cause of the Trojan War was a prince of Troy who attended a wedding of a Mycenaean king, saw the beautiful Helen, and became obsessed with her. Eventually, “obsessed must have a response,” and the goddess of fate responded. She was displeased with the wedding, wanting to disrupt it and incite war among the Greek city-states and the Trojans. She left a golden apple at the wedding inscribed “For the fairest goddess.” Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena competed for the apple.
They asked Zeus to judge who was the fairest. Zeus said, “I don’t understand,” and delegated the judgment to the most handsome Trojan prince. All three goddesses knew the judgment would be unfair, so they secretly promised him favors: Athena promised wisdom, Hera promised wealth, and Aphrodite promised beauty. The Trojan prince chose Aphrodite, giving her the apple. Aphrodite helped him realize his wish: to make Helen fall in love with him.
Helen was originally to marry Agamemnon, the Greek commander, but before the wedding, she broke her promise and eloped with the Trojan prince. Enraged, Agamemnon assembled the Greek states to form a coalition to attack Troy.
The key figures involved in the Trojan War include Agamemnon, the Trojan prince Paris, the Greek hero Achilles, and Odysseus, who appears in both the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey.”
Odysseus was a cunning man. Before the war, he was reluctant to go, as he received an oracle saying he would wander for 20 years before returning home. He pretended to be mad, eating pig food in a pigsty to avoid conscription by Agamemnon. An agent was sent to test him by placing his infant son in the field; Odysseus pretended to be insane by plowing the field with a plow and ignoring the child. The agent recognized his ruse and drafted him into the army.
Achilles’ mother received an oracle that he would die if he fought in Troy, so she hid him by disguising him as a girl among princesses. Odysseus, seeking to find Achilles, visited the country and falsely claimed an enemy invasion, causing the princesses to rush out. Only Achilles responded immediately, grabbing his weapons, and Odysseus recognized him, recruiting him for Troy.
Achilles was the son of the sea goddess, a demi-god. He was prophesied to die if he fought in Troy. His mother dipped him in the River Styx, holding his ankle, making him invulnerable except for the heel—his “weak spot.” Most people didn’t know about his vulnerable spot, so he was undefeated in battle.
He participated in the Trojan War but was furious when Agamemnon stole his slave girl. He left the battlefield. His close friend, deeply patriotic, secretly donned Achilles’ armor and fought in his place, achieving some victories but was killed by the Trojans, and Achilles’ armor was taken. Enraged, Achilles rejoined the fight to recover his armor and avenge his friend’s death, ultimately defeating Troy.
However, due to his excessive violence and killing, the “benevolent gods” told the Trojans that his vulnerable spot was his heel. An arrow shot him there, killing him.
The Trojan War has many more stories, such as Odysseus’ adventures in the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey.” He was cunning and scheming, involved in the Trojan Horse plan. After victory, he wanted to return home but couldn’t. He faced many difficulties at sea, including the Sirens—mermaid-like creatures with the body of an eagle and the head of a woman—whose singing lured sailors to their doom. With divine help, he defeated the Sirens.
Later, he drifted to an island full of beautiful women, endless food, and luxurious houses. He enjoyed feasts and comfort daily, immersed in pleasure, unwilling to return home. The “benevolent gods” urged Zeus to send him back. Zeus scolded Calypso, telling her she would never have a good ending with Odysseus, and ordered her to release him. Calypso cursed him: “You will meet many heroes, fall in love with them, but ultimately cannot keep them,” which was very malicious.
Odysseus spent seven years on the island, claiming, “I still love my wife.” He married Calypso, committing adultery, and enjoyed her company and luxuries daily. After seven years, he had a change of heart, saying, “I still love my wife,” and left the island by ship to return home.
Greek stories are savage, fully reflecting patriarchal characteristics.
Back to the main topic, there is another myth related to the Trojan War: the “Aeneid.” Aeneas was a Trojan prince and son of a goddess. He led the Trojan forces against the Greek coalition but was defeated. After Troy’s fall, Aeneas escaped with survivors, sailing to Carthage. The queen of Carthage fell in love with him and married him. He settled there, but the “benevolent gods” told him, “You cannot stay in Carthage; you must lead the Trojans to establish a new nation!”
Aeneas suddenly realized, “I must abandon women and build my career!” He left Carthage and sailed to Italy. There, he clashed with the Latin city-states. The Latin king received an oracle: “Your daughter cannot marry a mortal; she must marry a divine son.” The Latin king’s daughter was engaged, but he broke the agreement and married Aeneas. Thus, Aeneas became the ancestor of the Romans.
After being abandoned, the Carthaginian queen said, “From now on, the descendants of Carthaginians and Trojans will be enemies forever!” This led to the Punic Wars. Of course, later generations romanticized this, but it is related to actual history. Later, Rome and Carthage fought two Punic Wars over control of the Mediterranean.
Roman culture indeed has roots in Greek culture. Roman culture evolved from Greek culture, developed by Etruscans near Rome, who introduced Greek influences into the primitive Roman tribes, rapidly developing into Roman civilization. The Romans are not direct descendants of the Greeks.
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6. Formation of the City-States Era
In the 12th century BC, the Dorians migrated southward from northwestern Greece, inheriting the culture of the Mycenaeans. The Dorians and the Achaeans who created Mycenaean culture are both branches of the Greek people, but their social development was relatively backward. When they migrated south, they had not yet broken away from primitive communal societies. Their migration wave swept away the Mycenaeans and Pylos slave-owning states, causing widespread migrations among earlier Greek tribes.
The Aetolian dialect-speaking group in northern Greece migrated to the coast of Asia Minor and the northern Aegean islands; the Ionians migrated to the Cyclades and central coast of Asia Minor. The most famous city of Ionian culture was Athens; the most famous city-state of Aetolian civilization was Troy. There were also many city-states along the Asian Minor coast, such as Samos, Ephesus, and Miletus, which were relatively developed maritime city-states.
Among these city-states, early Greek materialist and naïve materialist philosophers emerged, such as Thales. Thales was born near Miletus, close to the sea, and believed that water was the origin of all things. Because these regions were relatively developed in industry and commerce and had advanced ideas, materialism was dominant. However, the power of aristocratic slave owners was strong, so materialism initially prevailed; later, as aristocratic and clan slave owners rose, materialist philosophy declined.
The Dorians penetrated into southern Greece, and some crossed the sea to settle on the islands of the southern Aegean and the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. The advanced centers in the Aegean region disappeared gradually, and the Greek tribes living there generally adopted clan-based tribal lifestyles. Some Achaeans were forced to migrate to the mountains of Arcadia. The social organization was based on patriarchal clan communes; clans formed tribes, and several tribes formed larger tribal units. Land belonged to patriarchal clans, with common ownership of land and tombs; marriages within clans were forbidden, and religious sacrifices were shared.
Not only from Homer’s epics but also supported by archaeological evidence, no palaces, castles, or tombs similar to Mycenae’s have been found from this period in Greece. There were no economic or cultural centers; natural economy dominated. The invasion of the Dorians caused a great destruction and regression of Greek civilization, transitioning from a civilized, written era to a barbaric age. Nonetheless, the socio-economic development of Greece continued. The previously existing advanced centers shrank in size and influence, and the gap between them and the surrounding backward regions narrowed because the advanced centers were destroyed. The productivity increased and expanded.
The use and development of iron were highly significant. Homer’s epics mention less iron and more bronze, but the proportion of iron mentions increased significantly in the later parts of the epics. Iron began to appear prominently during Homer’s era, gradually replacing bronze. Based on this foundation, the Homeric Age saw the emergence of a new historical stage beyond Mycenae, a “negation of negation,” a higher stage of development. The savage Dorians destroyed the advanced Mycenaean civilization and, on this basis, re-developed a civilization that surpassed Mycenae, leading to the later city-states era.
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7. Late Homeric Military Democracy
【As Homer’s era progressed, productive forces developed more and more. Commercial exchange began, with livestock and copper-iron ingots becoming mediums of exchange. With the development of productive forces, society gradually differentiated into classes, reflected in the wealth gap among community members, and the emergence of slaves, hired workers, and beggars. The primitive communal structure disintegrated, with disparities in movable property and significant differences in land ownership—the most important means of production. Tribal leaders and clan aristocrats began to accumulate private land, owning large estates—over ten hectares, half planted with fruit trees, half with crops—worked by bankrupt farmers, hired workers, and some slaves. Those who left the commune became either hired workers or beggars. The “Odyssey” describes many displaced, exhausted people, scavenging and being regarded as outcasts.】
As wealth disparity grew sharper, dissatisfaction naturally arose among ordinary community members, especially bankrupt members. Epic poetry generally sided with the aristocrats, ignoring or suppressing dissent, though occasional hints appear. The “Iliad” mentions a warrior named Tersites who voiced anger and accusations against aristocratic leaders. By Homer’s time, aristocratic leaders already owned slaves. The epics mention aristocratic slaves and land as interconnected. Aristocratic landowners owned dozens of slaves—mainly prisoners of war or kidnapped people. Female slaves were mainly used for domestic chores, male slaves as herders.
There were few slaves directly used for agriculture and crafts because slavery was not yet highly developed.
The military democracy period—Homeric era—is the late stage of primitive society. In tribal management, the state had not yet formed; within clans and tribes, there were military leaders, elders’ councils, and assemblies. Originally, in primitive tribes, the highest authority was the chieftain responsible for administration and major tribal affairs. But during the military democracy period, primitive tribes entered the late stage, with private ownership emerging, and private property became a focus of conflicts, with slaves becoming important assets.
To compete for land and slaves, wars between tribes were frequent, and military power became prominent. The position of military leaders surpassed that of chieftains. In Homer’s Greece, the military leader was a “Basileus” (king), elected by the tribe. The Basileus managed religious rituals and adjudicated disputes during peacetime, and led armies in wartime.
The elders’ council was composed of elders from each tribe, holding broad powers; members shared interests with the military leader. For major decisions, the military leader convened the elders’ council, similar to an aristocratic senate.
The assembly was composed of adult men and all warriors, voting on major issues such as warfare, alliances, migrations, and selecting leaders. In principle, it held the highest authority in the tribe. However, due to the growing wealth gap, the power of the military leaders and elders increased, and the assembly’s influence diminished.The development of the Roman Republic was similar. The Roman Republic had two systems: the Senate, composed of military aristocrats who decided all major affairs; and the Popular Assembly, but the Popular Assembly lost its power and became a rubber stamp for the Senate. Due to continuous struggles by the common people, the Roman commoners fought well, contended with the Senate, and regained some democratic rights, establishing the Tribune of the Plebs. The Tribune was elected by the Popular Assembly, loved by the citizens, and opposed the Senate.
The democratic form of Athens in Greece was also shaped through such struggles. Initially, the aristocratic clans monopolized politics, but the bourgeoisie engaged in commerce and slavery, refused to accept this, and claimed to act “for the benefit of the country and the people,” establishing a slave-based democratic system, using the power of the common people to fight against the aristocratic clans. Although there was no state power as an instrument of class oppression at that time, the political control of the aristocratic clans and military leaders over all tribe members had already formed. Engels provided a classic analysis of the military democracy of Homer’s era in “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” so studying this is useful.
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8. Political and Economic Reasons for the Formation of Polytheism in Greece
【The main achievement of early Greek culture was the formation of the “Homeric Epics,” which is the most important accomplishment. After long supplementation and refinement, both epics became immortal works of world literature. The characteristic of these epics is their focus on depicting characters’ personalities, using captivating plots and encounters; the language is concise, vivid, and structurally rigorous, representing the best results of ancient Greek oral literature in long-term development. Greek religious and mythological traditions also formed during Homer’s time. Greek religion originated very early; some major gods like Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena can be traced back to the Mycenaean period. The Phaistos disc mentions the names of these gods. By Homer’s time, Greek religious legends had become systematic myths, which had a significant influence on later Greek culture.】
Therefore, Marx said, “Greek mythology is not only a treasure trove of Greek art but also its soil.” These myths have persisted to today, although renamed as Roman mythology. The naming of the eight planets in the solar system is also based on Roman gods.
The biggest feature of Greek religious mythology is the doctrine of “god-human same form and same nature.” Gods are the archetypes and elevations of humans, the most beautiful, healthy, wise, and powerful immortal superhumans. They are super heroes; super hero literature existed in ancient Greece, i.e., Greek mythology.
“Most beautiful, most healthy, most wise” refers to the lowest morality and lowest quality; “god-human same form” reflects that gods are humans, representing the image of slave-owning classes. If gods are not humans, are they livestock? In primitive society, gods were depicted as livestock, which was a form of worship of nature and natural forces. But as productive forces improved, natural worship weakened. At the same time, in primitive society, everyone was equal, and no one worshipped the images of a few people as gods. However, by the end of primitive society, inequality arose, and monarchic aristocratic families became leaders and dictators, with other clan members under their rule, leading to the worship of individual persons and the emergence of gods with human-like forms.
The so-called “superman” is actually the “super-exploitative class”; the so-called “superhero” is just a “super dog.”
Traces of primitive totem worship and natural worship still exist in Greek religion, such as Zeus symbolized by a bull or an eagle. This reflects the transition from natural worship to a polytheistic religion with “god-human same form,” i.e., from primitive society to military democracy and slavery.
Many gods are associated with the “abdication” of monarchic aristocratic families; today, you do it, tomorrow I do it, “Basileus” (king) takes turns, and next year it’s my turn. The wheel of fortune turns; Rome ruled for thirty years, then Constantinople for thirty years; the strongest become “Augustus.” Correspondingly, Rome later entered imperial rule, abolished the “co-emperor system,” defeated other factions, and became dictatorial. After establishing imperial dictatorship, it also adopted monotheism. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which did not persecute Christians; before dying, he was baptized. Christianity is a monotheistic religion, and later the Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity.
For example, Zeus is symbolized by a bull or eagle, Hera by a cow, Athena by an owl, and there are also mountain and forest gods, and half-human, half-beast water monsters, reflecting the transition from natural worship to a polytheistic religion with “god-human same form.”
The Greeks believed that the gods lived on Mount Olympus. The chief god was Zeus, who wielded thunder and lightning to maintain the order of heaven and earth. After Zeus, there was Hera, and his brothers Poseidon and Hades respectively governed the ocean and the underworld. Zeus and Hera’s son Hephaestus (Hefestus) was the husband of Aphrodite, the god of fire and blacksmithing, protector of metallurgy and blacksmiths. Zeus also had many children with other goddesses, who occupy important positions in Greek religious mythology. Apollo was the sun god and protector of justice and arts; Artemis was the moon goddess and goddess of hunting; Hermes was the god of commerce and communication; Aphrodite was the goddess of beauty and love; Ares was the god of war.
Zeus and mortal women’s children were demigods and heroes. The famous strongman Hercules was one of them. Hercules’ name was given because Zeus, fearing Hera’s reproach after having a child with a mortal woman, named the child “Heracles” to please Hera. But Hera remained angry. Hera secretly nursed Heracles with her milk, and after drinking a few sips, Heracles became a mighty hero, invulnerable to weapons. Hera, discovering Zeus’s affair, was furious and sent two venomous snakes to bite Heracles. Heracles, born with divine strength, strangled both snakes as a baby—one with each hand.
Heracles was very savage, a typical male chauvinist. One of his twelve labors was to help a king solve a problem; after solving it, the king promised to marry his 50 daughters to Heracles. Heracles had intercourse with these 50 women in one place, but only one young daughter was shy and did not have sex with him. Each daughter bore him twins. So Heracles was a typical male chauvinist.
Heracles also died at the hands of women. Greek society was very male-dominated. Heracles married a princess and, in continuous warfare, captured many city-states, looted many women and princesses from various countries as concubines. Later, as his concubines increased, his wife became jealous and wanted to punish him. During a river crossing, Heracles had a centaur carry his wife across the river. The centaur told her, “I have a potion that can make your unfaithful husband change his mind.” He gave her the potion. The centaur had malicious intentions and tried to assault her, but Heracles, angry, shot and killed the centaur with an arrow. She believed in the magic power of the potion and smeared it on Heracles’ clothes. After wearing them, Heracles was poisoned and died.
From Greek mythology, it can be seen that all so-called heroes died at the hands of women, reflecting the sharp gender conflicts during the patriarchal society period. Zeus was often reprimanded by Hera because Zeus was promiscuous everywhere. The gender conflicts in patriarchal clan society were very intense.
All these gods had human-like personalities, with joys, anger, sorrow, and happiness, and also committed human faults. After Athens entered a class society, there was no appearance of despotic monarchy in politics, nor an omnipotent supreme ruler in religion. Zeus was the king of gods, but to some extent, he was equal to other gods and did not have dictatorial power over all gods. This reflects the period of military democracy: there was a military leader, the supreme leader, but other leaders could not act arbitrarily.
