Originally published at: http://sg.lsepcn.com/archives/571
Revolutionary Politician Empress Feng
Editorial Board of League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Proletariat
After the decay of the aristocratic clan and landlord dictatorship during the Western Jin Dynasty was shattered by uprisings of various ethnic groups, the northern minorities in our country established their own regimes. Although still in the stage of slave society in terms of social and economic form, upon entering the Central Plains they came into contact with advanced feudal modes of production. Under the influence of these, some of their members began to settle in agriculture, and feudal relations of production gradually grew within their society. Thus, two routes appeared before the ruling classes of these ethnic groups: one reactionary and conservative, which stubbornly maintained slavery, implemented policies of ethnic segregation and oppression, causing the advanced Central Plains society to regress into slavery; the other progressive and reformist, which aligned with the tide of feudalization, promoted ethnic integration, and accelerated the transition of their social and economic forms towards feudal society. The Northern Wei regime was established amidst the struggle between these two routes.
Map of Northern Wei
"In long-term conquest, the more barbaric conquerors, in most cases, had to adapt to the relatively higher 'economic conditions' existing after conquest. They assimilated with the conquered, and many even had to adopt the language of the conquered."
North Wei was a multi-ethnic state established by the Xianbei. At that time, Xianbei society was transitioning from a patriarchal slave system to feudalism. In terms of social economy, agriculture had developed to some extent, but a large part of animal husbandry was still retained. The labor force included slaves, semi-slaves, [2] and serfs [3], as well as small farmers directly transformed from Tuo Ba tribes.
In the early years of North Wei, the central government imposed extremely harsh land rent policies, requiring each household to pay twenty shi of grain, two bolts of silk, two jin of cotton, and one jin of silk [4], with a very high exploitation rate, even more than that of the Western Jin, which was notorious for its extortion. During Western Jin, the tax for a household of fifty mu of land was four hu of rent, three bolts of silk, and three jin of cotton. Moreover, due to the implementation of the "clan supervision" system in local administration and the "nine-rank mixed" system in taxation [6], the actual collection of taxes and levies was handled by local "clan leaders," i.e., aristocratic landlords. They used their privileges to arbitrarily assess households, "extorting the rich and impoverishing the poor," transferring most taxes onto impoverished farmers, who thus paid more than the legal amount. Besides state tax exploitation, the laboring people also suffered from additional oppression by officials at all levels. Before Empress Feng implemented the salary system, North Wei officials operated a plunder system: they did not receive salaries but only paid fixed taxes and levies to the central government, then freely extorted within their jurisdictions without restraint.
Feudal states, officials at all levels, Han landlords, and Xianbei slave-owning aristocrats all attacked the laboring masses. The various ethnic peoples could not bear the heavy burden. From the founding of North Wei, ethnic and class contradictions became extremely sharp, with uprisings erupting across the land. The largest was the uprising led by Gai Wu in 445 AD in the Liangcheng (present-day Huangling, Shaanxi) area, where the Lu Water Hu [7] uprising took place. Supported by Han, Xiongnu, Di, and Qiang peoples, Gai Wu's army numbered over 100,000, defeated North Wei troops, proclaimed himself King of Tiantai, and appointed officials. Although initially defeated, the uprising soon revived. Emperor Taiwu Tuo Ba Tuo, personally leading troops, barely suppressed this large-scale uprising. Facing such fierce class contradictions, North Wei's ruling class could no longer maintain the old order, and fierce divisions emerged, with reformists and conservatives fighting increasingly openly.
Although her name has not been passed down, Empress Feng, under her leadership, established the salary system, the equal-field system, and the three-length system. These systems, as legal guarantees for small private farmers' economy, promoted the feudalization of the Xianbei aristocracy, limited the power of Han aristocratic landlords, and contributed greatly to the feudalization and centralization of North Wei society. She also carried out policies of land reclamation, light taxation, and prohibitions against luxury, which somewhat eased social contradictions and promoted social production recovery and development.
Reflection of the reactionary TV drama "Splendid Never Ends" shot by Zhongxiu
As with every historical struggle between reform and conservatism, the conflict between Empress Feng and Tuo Ba Tuo was inevitably distorted by reactionary Confucian scholars of all generations. They lament "the wise and capable, endowed with talent and decisive," and viciously slander Empress Feng, fabricating charges of "favoring men" and "improper conduct," claiming she killed Tuo Ba Tuo because she resented him killing her "male favorite." However, this does not diminish her image as an outstanding female politician with legalist ideas; rather, it further proves the fundamental opposition between her reformist route and the reactionary Confucian retrograde route.
Contemporary Chinese bourgeois intellectuals have inherited their predecessors' mantle, producing the reactionary TV drama "Splendid Never Ends," which blackens Feng's struggle for political power as a palace coup launched through seduction and intrigue, completely ignoring the role of the people's struggle and Feng's progressive contributions. However, "the small world, how many flies bump into the wall? Buzzing, some screams, some sobs" [8]. Neither attack nor slander can erase Feng's historical achievements: she led the reformist forces within North Wei's ruling class, followed the tide of history, and on the basis of the heavy blows of uprisings by various peoples against the Xianbei slave-owning aristocrats and Han landlords, defeated Tuo Ba Tuo's reactionary route, adopted a series of feudal reform measures, and promoted social progress and ethnic integration in northern China.
1. Two Roads of Reform and Conservatism
Yongning Temple Tower built by Tuo Ba Tuo
Tuo Ba Tuo, a rigid and dull Confucian, was a faithful follower of the reactionary philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. He "liked to study the classics and Laozi and Zhuangzi, often summoning monks and玄学 scholars to discuss principles" [9]. Upon ascending to the throne, he "visited Taoist altars and personally received talismans" [10] [11], and extensively built Buddhist structures. Among them, the Yongning Temple Tower "over three hundred feet high, with a broad foundation, considered the number one in the world"; the Shakyamuni statue "forty-three feet high, made with 100,000 jin of red gold, 600 jin of gold" [12], costing a huge amount. After succeeding Emperor Xiaowen Tuo Ba Hong, he moved the imperial court to Chongguang Palace in the North Garden, immersing himself in玄学 texts all day long.
In stark contrast, Empress Feng issued orders to "burn all books of prophecy, secret texts, and the so-called 'Confucius Hidden Chamber Records'" [13], leaving only severe punishments for those who kept them. She also banned various superstitions, launched a fierce attack on Confucianism, and heavily suppressed it. This demonstrated her anti-Confucian stance, creating a sharp ideological conflict with Tuo Ba Tuo.
Tuo Ba Tuo promoted a Confucian route of appointing officials based on nepotism and supporting local warlords, appointing eleven Xianbei nobles and favorites' sons as kings, granting them fiefs. Before Feng established the salary system, officials at all levels in North Wei were almost unrestrained in corruption and plunder, protecting many farmers, intensifying exploitation, and indulging in luxury, severely damaging central authority. Moreover, North Wei did not resolutely implement policies to replace nomadic grazing with farming, and among the Xianbei derived from nomadic tribes, a large number of slave-owning pastoral economy was still retained. Tuo Ba Tuo's widespread enfeoffment actually cultivated a group of large landlords and slave owners controlling local power, turning them into regional separatists.
Furthermore, Tuo Ba Tuo also carried out so-called "benevolent governance." In 466 AD, he "decreed to strip titles from those who falsely claimed titles," and "for those who fraudulently obtained titles, only removing their titles" [15]. Under his "benevolent governance," Xianbei nobles and local landlords were above the law, while the common people suffered brutal exploitation and oppression. In October 473 AD, Tuo Ba Tuo ordered "one-tenth of the population to serve in the army, and households to pay fifty shi of rent" [16]. Shortly after this decree, "there were uprisings of farmers and rebels in Shandong" [17], and widespread peasant uprisings and resistance to grain requisitions erupted east of Xiaoshan. To suppress these uprisings, Tuo Ba Tuo reappointed the local landlord Xue Huzi, who had been demoted by Empress Feng, and brutally crushed the uprisings. In December, 11 prefectures in North Wei experienced floods and droughts. Under the dual blows of natural disasters and human calamities, over 2,800 people in the Xiangzhou area died of hunger.
Contrary to Tuo Ba Tuo, Empress Feng implemented a clear reward and punishment legalist route, "deciding life and death, reward and punishment in a moment" [18]. Even close officials, if they made minor mistakes, were "whipped" [19] or even over a hundred times [20]. It must be pointed out that these "minor mistakes" mainly referred to political or ideological errors. For minor daily matters like cooks serving wrong dishes or dishes with foreign objects, Feng always smiled and forgave. Moreover, she was "not resentful," and after punishing officials, she "treated them as before," often gaining their loyalty and making them "fight to the death without retreat" [21].
2. The Struggle to Clear Political Obstacles for Economic Reform
Tuo Ba Tuo's reckless support for local warlords, brutal plunder, and killing of laboring people sharply intensified class contradictions and destroyed social production. In 468 AD, Sima Xiufu launched an uprising in Xuzhou, claiming the throne of Jin. Uprisings of various sizes erupted across the country, with the peasant class and various ethnic groups rising wave after wave, threatening to overthrow North Wei's regime. Against this backdrop, conflicts within the ruling class between reformists and conservatives became increasingly fierce.
In 470 AD, Tuoba Hong launched a large-scale northern expedition against Rouran to gain political capital. After a great victory and return, he immediately began attacking the reform faction led by Empress Feng, with the Li Xin incident being one of the signs of this conflict. Li Xin, who was favored by Emperor Xuan, participated in major state affairs, was responsible for appointments and elections, and wielded immense power both internally and externally, with all officials respecting him. He was a senior minister under Tuoba Hong. He once petitioned Tuoba Hong to establish a school for teaching Confucian classics, hoping to cultivate a large number of reactionary Confucian scholars from aristocratic clans, allowing them to enter the court as officials and monopolize political power, "offering them to the Wangfu" [22]. Tuoba Hong understood this immediately and ordered the execution of Li Xu and Li Yi, and implicated dozens of members of the Li family. Li Xin, having "exposed" their "crimes," was pardoned and only sentenced to "a hundred lashes and a shaved head," then assigned as a servant [23][24]. Soon after, he was reinstated as the Minister of the Grand Council.However, Tuoba Hong’s conspiracy was not successful. In August 471, after returning to Pingcheng from a routine inspection, he hurriedly abdicated. Although the specific reasons are not recorded in the “Wei Shu” or “Zizhi Tongjian,” it can be inferred from the phrase in “Wei Shu · Zhiji Third · Tianxiangzhi Three” that “the emperor was pressured by the Empress Dowager and passed the throne to the crown prince, known as Emperor Xiaowen,” that Tuoba Hong’s abdication was due to his attack being shattered by the reform forces led by Empress Dowager Feng. Initially, Tuoba Hong wanted to pass the throne to his uncle and confidant Tuoba Zitu, but due to opposition from officials, he was forced to pass it to his son Tuoba Hong, who became Emperor Xiaowen. The struggle between reform and conservative factions was long-term and recurrent, with conservative forces still holding power at this time. After abdication, Tuoba Hong, claiming that Emperor Xiaowen Tuoba Hong was too young to rule, continued to hold power himself, calling himself “Supreme Emperor” and “moved to the Chongguang Palace… all major state affairs were reported to him” [25]. This laid the groundwork for the second major conflict between reform and conservatism.
Though forced to abdicate, Tuoba Hong never gave up his dream of restoration. He launched wars frantically, attempting to expand his influence through northern expeditions and southern campaigns, always ready to counterattack the reform forces led by Empress Dowager Feng. Heavy conscription and brutal military service further intensified the contradictions between the Northern Wei regime and the peasant class. Therefore, even after Tuoba Hong’s abdication, the anti-oppression struggle led by Han farmers in the Central Plains did not cease. In the same year (471), Feng Bian led the Qingzhou uprising, with thousands participating, claiming the title of King of Qi. In the same year, Sima Xiaojun launched the Pingling uprising. In 472, Sun Yan rose in Guangzhou. In 473, Liu Ju initiated an uprising, claiming the title of Emperor. That year, monk Huiyin also rebelled. In 475, Tian Zhidu and Jia Bonu launched uprisings, claiming the titles of Shangluo King and Hengnong King, attacking Luozhou. To suppress these large-scale peasant uprisings, the Northern Wei government issued an edict stipulating that “county magistrates who can quell ‘robbery and theft’ in their counties, and govern two counties, will be granted their official salary; those who quell two counties will govern three, and after three years, be promoted to prefect. Those who can calm two commanderies, up to three, will be promoted to inspector after three years” [26].
“The brutal economic exploitation and political oppression of the landlord class forced peasants to repeatedly rise up in rebellion to resist their rule… In feudal society, only this kind of peasant class struggle, peasant uprisings, and peasant wars are the true driving forces of historical development.” [27] The objective class struggle situation demanded that the Northern Wei ruling class implement reforms immediately to ease contradictions with the peasant class, or they would soon be buried under the surging peasant uprisings. Thus, in 476, Empress Dowager Feng launched a coup, killing Tuoba Hong, the leader of the reactionary faction, and purged his followers, eliminating the greatest political obstacle to reform.
To tarnish the historical image of Legalists and to uphold hierarchical ideas of father-son and male dominance, feudal reactionary Confucians in later generations distorted the causes of these struggles. They claimed that Tuoba Hong was killed because “the Empress Dowager acted unjustly” [28], and that Feng Dowager’s coup was solely to avenge her “male pet” who was killed. In reality, Li Xu and Li Yi were not “male pets” used for their beauty. Li Xu, during the internal chaos of Liu Song, decisively suggested attacking Liu Song to help Northern Wei conquer Xu and Yan provinces. Tuoba Hong’s killing of Li Yi and other officials trusted by Empress Dowager Feng was merely a means to strike at reformist political forces and eliminate obstacles to implementing Confucian policies. Moreover, Feng Dowager’s coup was not a palace intrigue involving conspiracies and political tricks, but a significant victory of the conservative landowning class over the Northern Wei aristocrats and powerful landlords amid ongoing peasant uprisings.
III. Bold reforms and revolutionary change
Because the Northern Wei rulers did not resolutely implement the policy of moving from pastoralism to farming, the livestock economy controlled by the Xianbei slave-owning aristocracy was not thoroughly transformed. Additionally, the large number of livestock obtained through continuous military campaigns further consolidated the nomadic economy. Meanwhile, in the vast Central Plains, manors and fortified villages spread everywhere. Han aristocratic landlords already owned large tracts of land and peasants, and continued to strengthen their political and economic power through methods such as land annexation, forest prohibitions, and concealment of household registration. Although the Northern Wei rulers repeatedly implemented “counting mouths and granting land,” the components of slave-based pastoral economy and feudal manor economy still played an important role in society at that time.
This economic foundation and its corresponding superstructure—the plundering system of officials’ income and the “patriarchal supervision” system of local administration—seriously hindered the implementation of Legalist policies, increased state revenue, and strengthened centralization. In response, after gaining supreme power, Feng Dowager carried out drastic reforms.
The reforms first targeted the official income system. In the early Northern Wei, due to the prevalence of feudal manors and slave-based pastoral economy, few farmers directly paid rent to the state, so the state’s fiscal revenue, especially grain income, was not reliably guaranteed. Since commodity economy had not yet widely adopted currency, paying officials’ salaries required a large amount of grain. The central government could not stably pay salaries, so local officials resorted to plundering within their jurisdictions, which became their main income. This system not only allowed local officials’ power to swell but also burdened the laboring people, sharply exacerbating class contradictions and weakening the central authority of Northern Wei.
In 479, Feng Dowager ordered the Grand Secretary Gao Yun to draft laws and regulations. As the highest law of the state, these laws were officially promulgated in 481, targeting the unlimited exploitation of farmers by officials, which caused local power to become overly centralised and frequent peasant uprisings. The law stipulated: “Ten lashes for illegal acts, two hundred lashes for major theft,” with ten lashes of cloth as the penalty for corruption, and death for two hundred lashes. Subsequently, Feng Dowager established a salary system and further stipulated: “After receiving the salary, if one is found with one lash of stolen goods, they shall be executed,” intensifying crackdowns on local landlords. Emperor Xiaowen Tuoba Hong’s maternal uncle Li Hong, known for corruption and brutality [30], completely disregarded the highest laws and central authority. Feng Dowager responded with firm suppression, sentencing him to death according to law. Later, corrupt nobles such as the Prince of Ruyin Tuoba Tianxi and the Inspector of Yongzhou, Nan’an Huiwang Tuoba Zhen, were dismissed and imprisoned for life. Investigators involved in bribery, like Lü Wenzu, were also prosecuted. As a result, “those receiving salaries were all in distress,” and bribery was nearly eradicated [31][32], sweeping away the previous political corruption of Northern Wei.
In response to this reform, local warlords launched fierce counterattacks. The conservative aristocratic forces led by Tuoba’s clan submitted petitions demanding the cessation of stipends. Gao Lü, under Feng Dowager, sharply opposed this, stating: “If we continue to pay salaries, the honest will be able to stop their thefts, and the greedy will be encouraged to do good; if we do not pay salaries, the greedy will act treacherously, and honest officials cannot protect themselves.” Without implementing the salary system and cracking down on local corruption, the aristocrats would act recklessly, and officials loyal to the central government who did not accept bribes would be suppressed. Gao Lü’s words revealed the sinister intent of the aristocrats’ demand to cut stipends. Tuoba Hong issued an edict “following Lü’s advice,” defeating this conservative backlash.
To maintain the newly established salary system and fundamentally strengthen central authority, merely restricting local officials’ extortion of common people was insufficient. Further adjustments to production relations were needed, including transforming the feudal manor economy and slave-based pastoral economy to compete with separatist and warlord forces for land and population, thereby increasing state revenue. Accordingly, Feng Dowager promptly issued the Equal Field Law. The law stipulated that men, women, slaves, ploughing oxen, and officials could receive designated plots of farmland [33], mulberry fields (or hemp fields). The law emphasized that land could not be bought or sold to curb land concentration: when landholders died or turned sixty and could no longer work, the land reverted to the government; officials leaving office had to transfer their “public land” to their successors, prohibiting private sales. It also allowed farmers to migrate and reclaim wasteland if local land was insufficient.
Feng Dowager’s implementation of the Equal Field System had profound historical significance. It recognized small landownership by peasants, acknowledged the legal possession of land by self-cultivating farmers, and transformed former serfs dependent on aristocratic landlords into peasants directly under central government control. Moreover, through regulations on land receiving by men, women, slaves, and ploughing oxen, it promoted the transformation of the Xianbei people into farmers and accelerated the feudalization process of Xianbei society. The provisions allowing landless farmers to cultivate wasteland also helped restore and develop productive forces.
Of course, while affirming the value of the Northern Wei’s equal field system, we must also recognize its limitations: unlike the equal field system under peasant revolutionary regimes, its primary purpose was to uphold the landownership of the landlord class; although it limited land annexation to some extent, Han landlords and Xianbei aristocrats still retained large amounts of land through slaves, ploughing oxen, and official land grants, so the reform was not thorough.
Having a single law—the Equal Field Law—was not enough to ensure its implementation. Land registration required thorough household registration, which in turn depended on local administrative organizations subordinate to the central government. Since the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the north had experienced years of division and chaos, and no long-term stable unified regime had been established. Local powers were mostly held by aristocratic landlords, who clustered in clans, owning dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of households (“clan households”) as tenants and vassals, forming autonomous warlord factions that severely damaged rural governance. When Northern Wei first unified the Central Plains, it lacked the strength to oppose these landlords. To gain their support, it often had to recognize their legitimacy and allow them to continue exercising local authority, called “patriarchal supervision.” These semi-autonomous local forces grew increasingly powerful, threatening Northern Wei rule. Therefore, Feng Dowager adopted Li Chong’s suggestion to replace the patriarchal supervision system with the “Three Chiefs System.”
The “Three Chiefs” are Neighbor Chief, Village Chief, and Party Chief. The Three Chiefs system stipulated that five households formed a neighbor, five neighbors formed a village, and five villages formed a party. The main responsibilities of the Three Chiefs were household registration checks and land surveys, to facilitate the implementation of the equal field system and the collection of corvée and military service. To further strengthen central control over localities, the system also required an assessment of local officials every three years, with “three years without faults” qualifying for promotion by one rank [36].
Once introduced, the Three Chiefs system was immediately opposed by the aristocratic landlords. Because household registration checks meant paying taxes based on population, this was extremely unfavorable to the aristocrats who concealed many peasants. The official Fu Siyì argued that “the ancestral laws cannot be changed,” claiming: “Customs differ, risks and ease vary, the nine-rank system has been long established, and changing it now may cause chaos.” Zheng Xi, the Central Secretary, and Gao You, the Secretary, also clamored: “Chong seeks to establish the Three Chiefs to unify the law. It seems feasible, but difficult to implement.” Zheng Xi even threatened: “If you do not trust my words, try it; after failure, you will see that my advice was not wrong.” Feng Dowager sternly rebuked them: “Establishing the Three Chiefs will standardize taxation, ensure consistent distribution, and allow households hiding land to be exposed; why not do it?” The reactionaries’ fierce opposition was crushed. Although they remained dissatisfied, they dared not speak out and could only claim, “We only find reform difficult and have no other objections” [37].
After establishing central control over local administration, household registration, and property relations, the next challenge was to compete for agricultural population with local warlords. The land rent and tax policies were another critical issue. In the early Northern Wei, the heavy taxation and requisition policies, as previously described, caused many peasants to go bankrupt and flock into manors and fortified villages to evade taxes. To address this, the government adopted a lenient taxation policy based on Li Chong’s advice, stipulating that a man and woman, slaves, ploughing oxen, and officials each paid two shi (about 200 liters) of grain and one pì (a measure of silk) annually. Unmarried people over fifteen, slaves, and twenty ploughing oxen paid the same amount. This greatly reduced the tax burden. More importantly, taxing slaves facilitated the transformation of the Xianbei aristocracy into feudal landlords and slaves into farmers. However, this policy also made significant concessions to large landlords, who owned many slaves and ploughing oxen but paid very low taxes, revealing the incompleteness of the reform.
These reforms greatly promoted productive forces. After more than ten years of implementation, the population of Northern Wei was twice as large as the combined population of Western Jin during the Taikang era (280–289 AD). Northern China reversed the situation of “the rich and powerful having surplus, and the poor barely surviving,” and a development situation emerged where “the tax savings exceeded ten times before, bringing peace to the realm.” The water mills, water wheels, and water mills damaged during the Sixteen Kingdoms period in the Central Plains were restored. These economic achievements were primarily created by the laboring people through productive and class struggles. Of course, the role of Feng Dowager’s Legalist policies was also indelible.
These ironclad historical facts are undeniable to any reactionary Confucian. To oppose Feng Dowager’s reforms, they resorted to various tactics, ultimately attacking her personal conduct. The reformists around Feng Dowager were also vilified. They claimed that “Wang Rui entered the inner chambers and became a chancellor within a few years, rewarded with countless treasures, gold books, and iron tokens, granted an edict of immortality. Although Li Chong was capable and trusted, he was also favored and entrusted with important affairs, receiving countless rewards” [38][39]. However, as previously mentioned, Li Chong proposed the Three Chiefs System and the policy of lenient taxation. Wang Rui’s memorial stated: “I have heard that the key to governance lies in five points: first, be cautious with punishments; second, appoint capable and virtuous persons; third, be sincere and loyal; fourth, avoid slander and flattery; fifth, promote and demote according to merit,” fully embodying Legalist political thought. It is clear they were not “male pets” favored through nepotism or personal relationships, such as “entering the inner chambers” or “being favored in the court.”
Feng Dowager’s progressive reform ideas were also reflected in her personal life. She was “frugal and plain, not fond of adornment, personally overseeing silk and brocade. She ordered officials to serve meals with strict portions, reducing the taste and variety to about eighty percent of previous standards.” Feng Dowager also sought to reduce expenses in the palace, ordering “the abolition of unnecessary projects, and dismissing palace maids who did not engage in weaving” [40], canceling unproductive projects and dismissing women who did not work in textiles. In 487, she issued an edict to abolish the workshops for brocade and silk embroidery, allowing civilians to produce freely [41], and ordered the Palace Office (which managed court utensils and supplies) to cease weaving brocade and silk, but not forbidding civilian production.
IV. Objective and fair evaluation of historical figures
Dengtong Empress Dowager Feng Statue
In 490, at only 49 years old, Empress Dowager Feng passed away. Her historical achievements are undeniable, but we should also clearly recognize that her progressive measures ultimately could not transcend the exploitative class limits. Although she burned the “oracle and divination texts,” she repeatedly visited Buddhist temples across the land, attempting to replace Confucianism with Buddhism as a spiritual tool to deceive and rule the people. Moreover, her implementation of the equal field system did not directly strike at the large landlord class; instead, she granted them large amounts of land. The incompleteness of her reforms laid hidden dangers for Emperor Xiaowen Tuoba Hong’s later shift toward Confucianism, the collapse of the equal field system, and the fall of Northern Wei. In summary, Empress Dowager Feng remains an outstanding female politician with a tendency toward Legalist thought.
However, under the slander of reactionaries throughout history, Empress Dowager Feng has been portrayed as a lustful and treacherous “poisonous woman.” Especially in contemporary Chinese imperialist propaganda, to promote reactionary Confucian ideas of male superiority and female inferiority, her achievements are completely erased from textbooks, and all feudal accomplishments of Northern Wei are attributed solely to Emperor Xiaowen Tuoba Hong. In fact, Tuoba Hong was only five when he ascended the throne, and he was only twenty-three when Feng Dowager died. Most of the revolutionary policies during that period were implemented by Feng Dowager.
Although her image has been tarnished, all slanders will eventually be swept away by the tide of history. We must apply historical materialism and class analysis to correctly view Feng Dowager’s progressive contributions and limitations, following Mao Zedong’s teaching: “turn the upside-down history right side up” [42]!
- Engels: "Anti-Dühring", "Selected Works of Marx and Engels", Volume 3, People's Publishing House, 1972 edition. ↑
- At that time called "Lìhù" (slave household), "Záhù" (mixed household). ↑
- At that time called "Xīn Mín" (new people). ↑
- Expenses for external adjustments and temporary department allocations are not included. ↑
- In the measurement system of that time, it was equivalent to one shi (stone). ↑
- That is, using the above-mentioned rent adjustment as the average amount, and allocating according to household and land quality standards. ↑
- Lushui Hu: a Xiongnu tribe living in Lushui. ↑
- Chairman Mao: "Man Jiang Hong · He Guo Moruo Comrade". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Zhi Volume 20 · Shilao Zhi". ↑
- Fu Lu: Taoist talismans and charms. ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 6". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Zhi Volume 20 · Shilao Zhi". ↑
- A type of divination that appeared after the Han Dynasty, which associates the succession of dynasties with Confucius. ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 7". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 6". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 7". ↑
- "Zizhi Tongjian · Volume 133 · Song Annals 15". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 1". ↑
- Chī Chuèi: to beat with wooden sticks. ↑
- "Zizhi Tongjian · Volume 134 · Song Annals 16". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 1". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 34". ↑
- Kūn Xíng: an ancient punishment involving shaving the beard and hair. ↑
- Sī Yì: forced labor. ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 6". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 7". ↑
- Chairman Mao: "China Revolution and Chinese Communist Party", "Selected Works of Mao Zedong", Volume 1, People's Publishing House, 1967. ↑
- Implying that Empress Dowager Feng led a licentious life. ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 1". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 77". ↑
- Jù Jí: cautious and careful. ↑
- "Zizhi Tongjian · Volume 136 · Qi Annals 2". ↑
- Called "Lù Tián" (露田) at that time. ↑
- Called "Bāo Yīn Hù" (苞荫户) at that time. ↑
- Called "Fú Làng Hù" (浮浪户) at that time. ↑
- "Wei Shu · Zhi Volume 15 · Shi Huo Zhi". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 41". ↑
- Wéi Wò: a tent hung inside a room. ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 1". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Lie Zhuan · Volume 1". ↑
- "Wei Shu · Di Ji · Volume 7". ↑
- Chairman Mao: "Talks on Literary and Historical Works and Historical Figures". ↑