After the end of the Greek period, the struggle between idealism and materialism continued during the Roman period. Following the Epicurean and Stoic schools, the development overview of Roman slavery period is as follows:
(1) Representative figures of each faction in different periods.
① Materialism: Lucretius (Roman Republic period) → Liu Shan (Roman Empire period)
② Idealism: Cicero (Roman Republic period) → Neo-Stoicism & Neoplatonism (Roman Empire period)
③ The manifestation of the struggle between two lines of Christianity during the Roman Empire period — the progressive Manichaeism, which appeared in heretical forms; the reactionary, “theoretical” Church Fathers.
（2）The specific thoughts of various schools.
① Lucretius:
Lucretius developed the original atomism further. He believed that apart from atoms and the void, nothing else exists in the world; the material world itself is infinite and was not created by gods. Life is also a product of moving atoms. The soul is composed of atoms as well. Lucretius thought that the idea that gods created the world from nothing was absurd. He pointed out that if things could arise from nothing, then biological organisms could be produced without seeds, which is obviously impossible. Similarly, existence cannot turn into nothing. If something can turn into nothing, then everything in the world would instantly perish.
【From this, it can be seen that Lucretius inherited and carried forward Democritus’s atomism, further developing materialism. Moreover, it is quite commendable that he thoroughly denied the absurd notion of gods creating the world, believing that the world is composed of atoms (matter), which is a more thorough form of materialism. In this regard, he is more advanced than Epicurus.】
Lucretius precisely pointed out that the concept of gods arose because people could not understand natural phenomena, leading to fear. Gods are just composed of fine atoms, living their own perfect lives, “at peace with the world,” so fears of gods are unfounded. As long as natural phenomena are explained, religious prejudices can be eliminated. He advocated that people should observe and study nature to acquire true scientific knowledge. 【This also reveals the limitations of Lucretius as a materialist thinker of the slave-owning class. He denied the absurd idea that gods created the world but was indecisive about whether gods exist. Moreover, from his description, these gods made of fine atoms seem more like embodiments of slave owners—promoting their peaceful coexistence, wanting only to live their perfect lives, and not deserving of fear. There is also a tone of advising rebellious slaves to lay down their arms and live peacefully, which aligns with his philosophical stance.】
However, Lucretius’s view of history was idealist. He believed that the emergence of human society, states, and laws was the result of mutual agreements among people. Like Epicurus, he thought the purpose of life was happiness, which could only be achieved through mental tranquility. He urged people to study natural laws and ethics, believing that this could free them from desires and attain peace, reflecting a passive slave-owning worldview.
② Cicero:
In the struggle between idealism and materialism at the time, idealism was expressed as a form of compromise. Cicero, from the aristocratic slave-owning standpoint, combined various reactionary ideas (such as Platonism, Stoicism, and Pythagorean mysticism) into a mixed bag, promoting ideas like divine grace, fate, and the immortality of the soul, claiming that religious moral concepts are shared by all peoples of every era, “innate ideas,” and reliable.
In philosophy, he attacked Epicurean hedonism as indulgent【such attacks are exactly like those of today’s bourgeoisie!】 and vigorously promoted Stoic asceticism. Politically, he advocated for “harmony of ranks,” believing that a mixed government of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy was the “most ideal” political system【this is where his compromise is most evident. But ultimately, compromise tends to reveal a reactionary stance in philosophy, and Cicero exemplifies this】. His compromise was an open deception of the people, defending the slave system of the Roman Republic.
③ During the Roman Empire, the representative of materialism was Lucretius. He inherited Epicurean and Democritus’s atomism, upheld materialist views, and his most notable contribution was his critique of religion. He mockingly and critically attacked Roman Christianity and Roman mythology, earning praise from Engels.
Lucretius was an atheist who completely abandoned and ridiculed beliefs in the immortality of the soul, faith in the Holy Spirit and ghosts, as well as beliefs in prophecy, spells, and other superstitions propagated by contemporary idealist philosophers.
④ Neoplatonism and Neostoicism. These are idealist schools that promote idealism and oppose materialism. Neostoicism advocates fatalism and asceticism, aiming to numb people’s revolutionary will and make them willingly submit to their rule. They loudly proclaim that the world is determined by “fate,” and humans are powerless to resist【this is exactly like the doctrine of Heaven’s mandate in Confucianism, showing that reactionary schools have little originality, all being the same. These reactionary theories are directly aimed at defending the rule of Roman aristocratic slave owners.】
Neoplatonism was the most reactionary mystical philosophy during the decline of the Roman Empire. They inherited Plato’s idealist metaphysics and further developed its mystical ideas. They believed the origin of the world was “The One,” which is God. From God emanates “cosmic reason,” including the mind and the realm of ideas, then from cosmic reason flows “cosmic soul,” and finally the sensory material world. They believed the purpose of life was to escape from the material sensory world. Their teachings urged people to abandon real life and struggle, waiting for divine revelation and spiritual liberation. Clearly, Neoplatonism had degenerated into outright religious superstition. It then merged with Christianity, becoming part of Christian doctrine.
⑤The struggle in Christianity.
Early Christianity promoted simple egalitarianism and advocated for the absorption of followers regardless of class or race, emphasizing equality among all people. Some groups practiced communal property and mutual aid, opposed Roman rule, and to some extent reflected the demands of the working people. Its doctrine held that the poor should endure suffering because all who suffer can ascend to “heaven,” while the rich exploiters find it even more difficult than a camel passing through the eye of a needle.
From early Christian teachings, it can be seen that although it originated from the working people’s religion and to some extent reflected their interests and needs, ultimately it is rooted in idealism. Like all religions, it acts as an anesthetic, dulling the revolutionary consciousness of the masses. Therefore, when the ruling class in Rome initially attempted to suppress Christians, they gradually used its backwardness to transform Christianity into a tool fully serving the slave-owning class’s rule, declaring it the state religion and orthodoxy.
Thus, when the so-called “orthodox” Christianity was controlled by the ruling class, the resistance of the working people appeared in the form of heresy. The most famous heretical thought emerging in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD was Manichaeism, which originated in Persia. The teachings of Buddhism are markedly class-conscious and strongly advocate materialism. Because the fundamental aim of Manichaeism was to oppose oppression and the state’s slavery system, it gained widespread support among the working masses. As a result, Manichaeans faced brutal persecution, and Mani himself was cruelly killed. However, the sword and blood could not scare people away. Although Mani died, the working people continued to use Manichaeism as a religious guise for resistance until the situation changed.
⑥Reactionary factions within Christianity.
Theology of the Church Fathers: To transform early Christianity into a spiritual pillar suitable for the needs of the rulers, the Roman authorities further established a unified doctrine and theological theory, combining it with philosophy to perfect their arguments, known as “Church Fathers’ Theology.” The fervent theologians who founded this theology became the pioneers or founders of Christian theology and were honored by the church as “Fathers of the Church,” and their theology was called “Church Fathers’ Theology.” This doctrine gave Christianity an appearance of “learning” and “theory,” making it more deceptive.
The greatest authority among the Church Fathers is Augustine, who comprehensively expounded the basic doctrines of Christianity and fiercely attacked materialism and various pagan ideas.
He promoted the idea that philosophy should serve theology, reason should obey faith, faith surpasses reason, and that knowledge unrelated to faith is useless, among other extreme reactionary views.
The view of “Apocalypse theory” is actually transcendentalism. In his view, leaving God would cause the world to become nothing. He proposed that time and matter were created simultaneously; in terms of time, there is no past or future, only the present, and he describes time as
Orthodox Doctrine:
The orthodox doctrine of Christianity was established in the 4th century AD, after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. To make Christianity more suitable for the needs of rulers, multiple religious councils were convened, and the main doctrines are as follows:
) The doctrine of the Trinity. The Trinity refers to the Holy Father, Holy Spirit, and Holy Son. The Nicene Creed stipulated that the Holy Father and Holy Son are of the same essence, one and equal. Anyone who does not accept this system would be branded heretical and ultimately punished by Christians.
) The doctrine of Christ as God-man. It arbitrarily states that Jesus possesses both divinity and humanity. This doctrine is key to Christianity’s teachings on Jesus’ salvation of humanity.
) The doctrine of original sin. It holds that humans cannot use their own strength to avoid the sins inherited from ancestors, and can only be forgiven by God in heaven.
From this, it can be seen that even religion is not necessarily a black-and-white path. Pay attention, there are also struggles between idealism and materialism, and between orthodox and “heretical” factions within it. In fact, most of the ancient peasant uprisings in our country were carried out under the guise of religion. Religion plays completely different roles depending on whether it is in the hands of the working people or the ruling class. Many people like to insult the Boxers and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. When studying, everyone should also recognize this point; those who hold this view are not simply foolish or terrible, but are fundamentally biased. Ultimately, this depends on which side you stand on. Those who mock the big刀 (blade) for not being able to kill foreign devils, those who mock Hong Xiuquan for calling himself Jesus’ second brother, at the critical moment of national salvation, will inevitably become dogs of reactionary forces.
Other comrades are also welcome to share their views. Especially on issues related to religion, everyone can speak freely.
Is this a mistake?
Religion exists as a distortion of social phenomena in real society, and it is also used by the working people to transform into revolutionary theory and revolutionary propaganda. For example, Zhang Jiao, a great sage and teacher during the Han Dynasty, followed the belief that “Zhong Huang Tai Yi” was the supreme god and organized peasant uprisings. Zhang Jiao regarded the Yellow Sky as the highest deity, believing that the Yellow God created heaven and earth and mankind, and also worshipped the Yellow Emperor and Laozi, considering the world during the Yellow Emperor’s time as a peaceful world, the most beautiful world for humanity, where there was no exploitation, oppression, hunger, cold, disease, theft, or deception, and everyone was free and happy. Based on this, Zhang Jiao proposed the ideal of “achieving peace” and organized armed struggles to realize this ideal. After Buddhism was introduced from the Eastern Han, the Maitreya descent belief in Buddhism became the main material for transforming revolutionary ideas. During this period, revolutionary masses revered Zhang Jiao as a religious leader, chanting “Namo Maitreya Zunfo,” burning incense, gathering crowds, and organizing uprisings. After the Zoroastrian Manichaeism was introduced into China, worship of the Brightness God and Maitreya Buddha became the mainstream of revolutionary religion. During the Qing Dynasty, revolutionary peasants still followed the habit of “paying homage to the sun” when organizing revolutionary struggles through religious organizations.
This was ancient peasant warfare. During the initial stage of capitalism in the bourgeoisie, they were not so advanced and still used the Christian Protestant religious guise to organize revolutionary movements, a phenomenon particularly prominent in the British Revolution.
In China, Zhong Huang Taiyi, Tai Shang Lao Jun, Guankou Erlang Shen, Maitreya Buddha, Brightness God, Mani (the Chinese people revere Mani as the Brightness God), Jiu Tian Xuan Nv, and the Parents of Non-Existence have all been used as cover by revolutionary masses.
Thank you for pointing it out, there was a mistake here. Buddhism is definitely idealist.
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